Computer Hoax Categories

Malicious Code (Virus and Trojan ) Warnings

Warnings about Trojans, viruses, and othermalicious code that has no basis in fact. The GoodTimes and other similar warnings are here.

Urban Myths
Warnings and stories about bad thingshappening to people and animals that never reallyhappened. These are the poodle in the microwave andneedles in movie theater seats variety. Give Aways Stories about give aways by large companies.If you only send this on, some big company will sendyou a lot of money, clothes, a free vacation, etc.,etc. Expect to wait a long time for any of these topay off.

Inconsequential Warnings
Out of date warnings and warnings about real things that are not really much of a problem..

Sympathy Letters and Requests to Help Someone
Requests for help or sympathy for someone whohas had a problem or accident.

Traditional Chain Letters
Traditional chain letters that threaten badluck if you do not send them on or that request youto send money to the top n people on the list beforesending it on..

Threat Chains
Mail that threatens to hurt you, yourcomputer, or someone else if you do not pass on themessage.

Scam Chains
Mail messages that appear to be from alegitimate company but that are scams and cons.

Scare Chains
Mail messages that warn you about terriblethings that happen to people (especially women).

True Legends
Real stories and messages that are not hoaxes but are still making the rounds of the Internet. Hacked History

Internet Flamming and Hoax Example

The foregoing mail is a hoax and inciting racial Cy-war- an example to flamming

To: memargonz@yahoo.com
Subject: Filipinos.....*make me puke* (Art
> Bell)---
> > >As we've all come to notice, in the past few
> decades, Filipinos have
> > >begun to infest the United States like some sort
> of disease. Their
> > >extensive involvement in the U.S. Armed Forces is
> proof of the trashy
> > >kind of qualities all filipinos tend to exhibit
> on a regular basis.
> > >You can see this clearly by studying the
> attitudes and cultural Icons
> > >of most Filipino Americans. Origins of
> Pinoys/Pinays: Are they really
> > >asian?Well we've come to accept the fact the
> filipinos come from a part
> > >of the world known as South East Asia. But the
> term "Asia" is used in
> > >the wrong way. You may notice that contemporary
> Filipino Americans try
> > >very hard to associate themselves with groups
> that we know as Asian. I
> > >cannot count the number of times I have seen a
> 'Third World' Filipino try
> > >to connect themselves to the chinese or Japanese
> people. There is no
> > >connection and here's why. The Philippines is a
> Third World country.
> > >Nothing respectable has EVER been created by
> Filipino people during our
> > >entire human history. Young filipino men in
> America have become obsessed
> > >with "import racing".They have an enormously
> perverted affection for
> > >Japanese cars. It's a common phenomenon. In
> their minds, these
>
> > >filipinos somehow believe that they are asian and
> that it somehow connects
> > >them to Japanese people and japanese cars. They
> often take credit for
> > >the ingenuity of Japanese people and say how it's
> an "Asian thing".
> > >This term..."Asian thing" derived directly from
> African American slang
> > >"black thang". "It's a black thang.""It's an
> asian thang." You can see
> > >the connection. It's even funnier that, in
> Japan, Filipinos are heavily
> > >discriminated against. The only filipinos that
> can live successfully in
> > >Japan are the filipino prostitutes. But that's
> the case for most
> Filipino
> > >people no matter where they live in the world.Now
> we've come down to this
> > >fact...and it is a fact. Nothing in Filipino
> Culture can be seen as
> Asian.
> > >
> > >They have no architectural, artistic, or cultural
> influence which is in
> ANY
> > >way, asian Thinking of the great countries in
> Asia such as Japan, Korea,
> > >and China there is no way you can possibly
> connect the Philippine
> Islands.
> > >This assault by filipino americans to connect
> themselves with the great
> > >peoples of North East Asia is foul and
> disgusting.
> > >
> > >Try visiting a young filipino's web site too.
> You'll see something called
> > >the
> > >"Asian IRC Ring". It has to do with the
> chatrooms. The most horrible
> > >thing about
> > > this is that these TRASHY people are trying to
> associate themselves
> with
> > >Asia again!!
> > > People in Asia don't act like, this at all.
> > >
> > >What we are seeing here is the natural filipino
> in it's element with full
> > >access to technology and this is how they act!
> You will consistently see
> > >this behavior over and over again. Another
> interesting thing is that
> these
> > >"thirdworld" people also frequent IRC chatrooms
> such as #chinese #japan
> and
> > >#asian. They must believe that they are some how
> related racially or
> > >culturally to North Asians.
> > >
> > >But it's completely WRONG! There might have been
> some distant contact
> with
> > > China and
> > >even less with Japan during World War II, but
> these people are actually
> > >more closely
> > > related to african americans and mexican
> americans. Do the parents of
> > >these young
> > > filipinos know what's going on? Would they a
> accept this? I believe
> > >that
> > > they would
> > >and do. This is the natural "Trash" element in
> filipinos manifesting
> > >itself.
> > > Nothing good has ever come from Philippines
> and I don't believe
> anything
> > >good ever will.
> > >
> > >Recognizing your Roots (A Message to Filipinos).
> > >To all filipino people:
> > >Please recognize your ROOTS!
> > >You come from the Third World! You country is a
> disgusting and filthy
> > >place. Most people there live in poverty! Your
> culture has MUCH MORE
> > >SPANISH influence than chinese, and absolutely no
> JAPANESE influence
> > >whatsoever. People in Japan and China, do not
> act like you. They do not
> > >constantly talk about sex and they have a MUCH
> HIGHER level of RESPECT
> for
> > >each other.
> > >
> > >There is NO WAY that you can connect yourself to
> Asia other than
> location.
> > >
> > >Your culture and technological advancement does
> not even come CLOSE to
> what
>
> > > Chinese,
> > >people have done in the past and what Japanese
> and Korean people are
> doing
> > >now!
> > >Everything you do is distinctly filipino. You
> cannot take credit for
> > >Japanese cars,
> > > video games, or Hentai! It's not an "asian
> thing" it's, an "american
> > >thing".
> > >
> > >You have no concept of culture..no concept of
> asian ideas or asian
> > >philosophy!
> > > Can you demonstrate how you use Confucianism or
> Taoism in you everyday,
> > >life??
> > > You can't. And you will NEVER be able to. I
> understand that you are
> > >trying to
> > >create an identity for yourselves as young
> people... but it is NOT
> related
> > > to Asia.
> > > Your Identity is Filipino.
> > >
> > >That's all you are.
> > >Just Filipino. Think about what that means....
> > >
> > >
> > >
> > > Sincerely,
> > > Art
Sources:
http://www.awsp.com/spamming.html
http://w3f.com/no-spam.html
The WWWeb Factor John R. Beaman

Module 8 - Privacy Issues

Database Privacy

The information you supply to databases should be used only for their intended purpose. Such information should not be distributed openly. For example, it is unethical for a bank to sell client account information to other banks.

Email Privacy

Only you and the intended recipients, and nobody else, should read what you write in your emails. It is therefore unethical for system administra­tors who have access to your account to read your mail sent folders and mailboxes.



Privacy on the Web

Ideally, only you should know the websites you visited. However, be­cause of access logs, the websites you visit may be known especially to system administrators who have access to these logs.

An issue related to privacy is the establishment of a national identifica­tion system. National ID cards have long been advocated as a means to enhance national security, unmask potential terrorists, and guard against illegal immigrants. They are in use in many countries around the world, including most European countries, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.

One basic issue against its institution in every country is the privacy issuesince the card might contain basic personal information of individualsthat will also be maintained in some central computer of the government.Countries opposing its institution are arguing that it is open to abuse bygovernments. But with the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 in theUS, most governments are again opening the debate on the possibility ofintroducing a national identification system.

In this case we see that a national identification system is considered ethi­cal in some countries and unethical in other countries.

Finally, there are many ways exist to enhance your privacy online. One method is the use of encryption in every transaction you make in the Internet.

Hacker's Code of Ethics

1. Do not intentionally damage any system.
2. Do not alter any system files other than ones needed to ensure yourescape from detection and your future access.
3. Do not leave your (or anyone else's) real name, real handle, or real phonenumber on any system that you access illegally.
4. Be careful who you share information with.
5. Do not leave your real phone number with anyone you do not know.
6. Do not hack government computers.
7. Don't use codes unless there is no way around it. If you use codes longenough, you will get caught.
8. Be paranoid. Remember, you are breaking the law.
9. Watch what you post on boards.
10. Don't be afraid to ask questions. That's what more experienced hackers are for.
11. Finally, you have to actually hack.

Module 7 Computer Abuses

Ethics deals with placing a value on acts according to whether they are good or bad. Ethics involves standards, values, morals, principles, and the like whick are used as basis for one's decisions or actions. Often there no clear good or bad action.
When computers first began to be used, there were no ethical standards relevant it. However, as the use of computers became widespread, computer ethics became a concerns. Today, most of the rules on the ethical use of computers have already been formulated as laws such as E-commerce law to curb down computer crimes and fraud.

Major Classification of Computer Abuses

Denial of Service
A denialof-service attack is characterized by an explicit attempt by at­tackers to prevent or bar legitimate users of computers from availing them­selves of computer services. Examples of denial-of-servicc attacks are:
attempts to "flood" a network, thereby preventing legitimate networktraffic attempts to disrupt connections between two machines, thereby pre­venting access to a service attempts to prevent a particular individual from accessing a service attempts to disrupt service to a specific system or person
Denial-of-service attacks come in a variety of forms and aim at a variety of services. There are three basic types of attack:
1. consumption of scarce, limited, or non-renewable resources;
2. destruction or alteration of configuration information
3. physical destruction or alteration of network component


Consumption of scarce, limited, or non-renewable resources:

Consumption of scarce resources targets network connectivity. The goal is to prevent hosts (or network servers) from communicating on the net­work. In this type of attack, the attacker begins the process of establishing a connection to the victim machine, but does it in such a way as to pre­vent the ultimate completion of the connection. In the meantime, the vic­tim machine has reserved one of a limited number of data structures required to complete the impending connection. The result is that legiti­mate connections are denied while the victim machine is waiting to com­plete bogus "half-open" connections.
In bandwidth consumption, an intruder may also bo able to consume all of the available bandwidth on your network by generating a large num­ber of packets directed to your network. Typically, these packets are ICMP ECHO packets, but in principle they may be anything. Further, the in­truder need not be operating from a single machine; he may be able to coordinate or co-opt several machines on different networks to achieve the same effect. An intruder may consume other resources that your systems need in order to operate, For example, in many systems, a limited number of data structures are available to hold process information. An intruder may be able to consume these data structures by writing a simple program or script that does nothing but repeatedly create copies of itself, Many modern operating systems have quote facilities to protect against this problem, but not all operating systems do. Moreover, even if the process table is not filled, the CPU may be consumed by a large number of pro­cesses and the associated time spent switching between processes. An intruder may attempt to consume disk space in other ways, including generaling excessive numbers of mail messages, intentionally generating errors that must be logged, and placing files in anonymous ftp areas or network shares.

Alteration of configuration information

An improperly configured computer may not perform well or may not operate at all. An intruder may be able tn alter or destroy configuration information lhat prevents you from using your computer or network. For example, if an intruder can change the muting information in your routers, your network may be disabled. If an intruder is able to modify the registry on a Windows NT machine, certain functions may be unavail­able.

Physical destruction or alteration of network components

The primary concern in this type of attack is physical security. You should guard against unauthorized access io com­puters, routers, network wiring closets, network backbone segments, power and cooling stations, and any other crilical components of your network. Physical security is a prime component in guarding against many types of attacks

Hacking


Hacking involves unauthorized access to a computer, its files, and pro­grams, There are many reasons why hackers hack computers.

1. Theft of service, meaning, if a system offers some typeof service and a hacker has a use far it, he/she will hack the system.For example, a hacker can hack into a system to use Ihe CPU for free or to use it for sending emails for free.

2. hacking is to take valuable files, such as creditcard numbers and list of customers, The hacker may sell the informa­tion gathered to rival companies.

3. Vengeance and hatred. For example, a hacker may get into the homepage of the university that kicked him out and deface the homepage.

4. Some hackers break into systems for the thrill and excitement because somewhere they are not authorized to be.

5. For the sake of knowledge and ex­perimentation. Hackers learn a great deal every time they break into a new type of system.

Flaming

Flaming is the sending of abusive email or messages to other people or newsgroups. You flame people when you disrespect their opinion and attack them personally, calling them names or questioning their parent­age. Flaming is considered poor online conduct and is not tolerated well in chat rooms or newsgroups. Other people in the chat room or newsgroup can quickly turn on individuals who flame. It is best to practice good online conduct and avoid getting into personal confrontations with other people.

Spamming


Spam, sometimes called unsolicited commercial email, is the internet version of junk mail. It is an attempt to deliver a message over the Internet to someone who would not otherwise choose to receive it. Almost all spam is commercial advertising. Scanning usenet creates potential target lists postings, stealing Internet mailing lists, or searching the web for addresses. Automated searches are used to retrieve e-mail addresses for spamming. The low cost of e-mail spamming engines offered for sale with millions ofemail addresses, coupled with the fact that the sender does not pay extrato send email, has resulted in the explosive growth of junk email. Cur­rently, unless the spammer offers to sell illegal items, there is no legal way of putting a stop to e-mail spammers. Many Internet Service Providers now have policies on spamming, includ­ing disabling the offender's account. In some countries, spamming is con­sidered illegal.

Worm and Virus

A virus is a program that reproduces its own code by attaching itself to other executable files in such a way that the viruses code is executed when the infected executable file is executed. A virus reproduces usually with­out your permission or knowledge. In general terms a virus has an infec­tion phase during which it reproduces widely, and an attack phase dur­ing which it does whatever damage it is programmed to do (if any).


A worm is a self-replicating program designed to spread across a net­work without requiring any outside actions to take place. The main dif­ference between a worm and a virus is that a virus relies on human actions, such as sending e-mail or sharing files, to copy itself from one computer to another, whereas a worm is able to do so independently, allowing it to spread much faster.

Internet Hoax

Among the junk mail and spam that fill our e-mail boxes are dire warn­ings about devastating new viruses, Trojans that eat the heart out of your system, and malicious software that will destroy everything you have in your hard disk. There are also messages about free money, children in trouble, and other items designed to grab you and get you to forward the message to everyone you know. These messages are hoaxes or chain let­ters. While hoaxes do not automatically infect systems like a virus or Tro­jan, they are time consuming and costly to remove from all the systems where they exist.

Module 5 - Moral Problems

The study of ethics is the study of moral problems. There are 4 considered moral problems relevant of computing

Problem of Moral Principle
- Humans search for a guiding method, standard or principle that can employ in making good decision and right choices in pursuit of good life. However, looking at the various theories previously discussed, there is not standard or moral principle that defines good decisions, right choices and moral action

Problem of the scope of Morality
- A moral principle should serve as a guide for making moral choices. However, there is difficulty on how individuals determine which among their choices are moral and which are not. The problem of scope of morality deals with the identifying what it includes and what it excludes

Problem of Moral Obligation
- Individuals act in accordance with the dictates of society. Conflict arises when what an individual wants to do is the reverese of what he/she ought to do as a member of the society. In this case, the problem is one conflicting moral obligations to oneself and to the society at large

Problem of Freedom
- Freedom determines whether there is morality or not. When humans are free, then there is no morality, if there are restrictions or no freedom then there must be morality. When we are free, every action we act is a unique expression of ourself, and no action is moral or immoral, right or wrong, good or bad. When we are no free, this means that there exists a recognition of the rights of others, there will always be s set of criteria or standards of morality on which our action shall be based. This problem reflects the saying: "Your rights end at the tip of my nose"

Preliminary Theories

Ethical Relativism

• espouses the idea that each moral situation is unique and that no absolute universal truths apply

• moral situations are incomparable with others due to individual differences brought about by: cultural heritage,varied religious affiliations, different prevailing social norms and distinct individual preferences

• Ethical Relativism may be understood through Richard Burton's lines:

  There is no good, there is no bad
  these be the whims of mortal will;
  What makes me weal what call I good
  What harms and hurts I hold as ill.
  They change with space of time,
  Each vice has worn a virtue's crown.
  All good been banned as sin or crime.

• The above reiterates the idea that what we desire and consider good vary from time to time, from one social group to another.

• Relativism subscribes and principle “what may be morally right for you may not be morally right for another

  • e.g. It is a fact in the Phils. that there is very high computer literacy rate and therefore there is a high demand software and programs but the low income level of filipinos do not support that we can afford to buy licensed softwares. This explains why pirated or unlicensed copies of software are so in demand and that it proliferation has become popular, ordinary and socially acceptable.

• John Dewey asserted that human beings should be judge and be judged in the context of the complexities that characterize human life. This implies that you may have examine each ethical situation as a particular case rather thaan as a general one.
  

Ethical Absolutism

• Asserts that there should be fixed or rigid factors in evaluating actions. Fixed factors are universal, constant and there unchanging reasons for judging action as good or bad, right or wrong, just or unjust, among others.
  

• Absolutism simply argues that one must follow a consistent ethical standard, one that universal in nature. What is considers bad in one sense cannot be good in another.

• All actions must be black or white and never gray, at any given time.

Ethical Egoism, and Ethical Altruism

• According to Thomas Hobbes, what predisposed us to act in a certain way is determined by whether it is an object of aversion or object of desire.

  • Objects of desires and those that motivate one to pursue

  • Objects of aversion are those that motivate on to avoid.

• objects and actions have no intrinsic value rather the assessment of their moral value hinges on how they are categorized. Objects of desire are labeled good while object of aversion are considered evil

• Hobbes depicted human being as being completely and exclusively egoistic. They are preoccupied solely with seeking the satisfaction or pleasure that are considered morally good.

  • e.g. K fabricated stories about how P's program loopholes that would somehow create security problems on the intranet. Because of what K did, P was demoted to a lesser position. From the given situation what possibly prevented K from doing what she did might be: from an egoist point of view: his fear that sooner people will discovered that his stories are lies and she will be penalized, she will put high regard of himself and wants to project himself as a law abiding citizen. Both options point to K's interest

Altruism is the desire to promote the good and welfare of others.

• Egoist believe that pure altruism merely mask self-interest.

• According of Moritz Schlick, people have the tendency to lie about their motives in doing certain things

• He believe that “the cult of altruism is merely a particular form of egoism that regularly appears under certain psychological circumstances

• Various thinker have tried to debunk the egoists' theory and contend that altruism is feasible and realistic. Each one of us has a sense of fairness that rouses us to rationalize our selfish actions

• They contend that we would not have inventions such as computers if everyone in the world are egoistic

• Human instinct usually shadow our egoistic side, and rationality shadow our altruistic side

Finalist Theories

Utilitarianism

- John Stuart Mill believe those actions that bring happiness are considered morally right while those actions that inhibit hapiness are considered morally wrong.
- popularly known as the greatest happiness principle
- Actions are either inherently pleasurable or merely instrumental – that is things may be valued for their own sake(inherent value) or because they are instrumental in attaining an end(instrumental value)
- It considers the results or consequences of a particular action in determining whether or not the said action is right or wrong.


Categorical Imperatives

- Immanuel Kant's concept of what is good per se does not need qualification

- An act is good not because of certain consequences that occur in its performance, or on the basis of its end-result, but because of the "will" that accompanies the act.

-The "will" when employed with traits that many treats as good and desirable(such as courage, resoluteness, perserverance) may turn negative and harmful when in itself "will" is not good.

- "Good Will" therefore corrects the mind and protects it from the repelling influences of arrogance and pride. Will is the competence to discern and decide whether to obey certain laws with the use of reason or rationality. This formulation of command of reason is called imperative - a means towards understanding an objective principle in so far as it is mandatory for the will.

- Kant introduced the concept of "duty" to exemplify good will. Duty comprises the notion of what is good with certain limitations and impediments.

- Kant presented 3 prepositions of morality related to duty

• - To have moral worth, an action must be done out of duty

e.g. Kara takes care of his computer because it is her duty to do as its owner. She does not thinnk about why she should do so. She only wills the performance of her said duty.

• An action done from duty does not not have its moral worth in the purpose, which is to achieved through it, but in the maxim by which it is determined. This means that the purpose or end for which an action is done has nothing to do the moral worth but the on the principle of the will that can be fulfilled through the performance of said action
  

• Duty is the necessity of an action done from respect for the law. To duty every other motive must give place, because duty is the condition of a will good in itself, whose worth transcends everything

e.g. The following does not qualify the concept of duty
Chito buys genuine and branded software not because he wills it but because he is acting in compliance with the law against piracy.

- Imperatives as stated above are either hypothetical or categorical.
- hypothetical imperative - commands an action that is meant to be good merely as means to something else - meaning an action is good for some purpose and therefore conditional

e.g. a CS student is advised to become familiar with computer languages, since the computer although user-friendly, would operate only upon the user's command, the act of learning by heart therefore computer language and its application is an imperative to attaiiin a particular end - that is familiarization of computer operations

- Categorical imperative commands an action that is good in itself - meaning necessary without regard for any purpose or any end other than itself. This is also known as the imperatives of morality

e.g. Love one another is good in itself and does not need any purpose


Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

- referred to as "Virtue Ethics,"
- Aristotle observed that the different ends of human beings can be classified into three: instrumental, final, and supreme.
- He argued that there are ends that are used only as means for attaining other ends. This means they are not pursued for themselves or for their own sake; rather, they are utilized as instruments for other end. In computing, the design and creation of programs are the ends (or goals) of computer programmers. Once & particular program is completed, it ceases to be an end and becomes a means towards attaining another end

e.g. Paula is a newly graduated computer programmer. Luckily, she was able to get employment in a computer service provider. As a young professional, Paula is full of energy and dreams. One of her fantasies is to be able to design and create a -unique marketing program for a client. Paula devotedly and patiently executes her design into a program. After several months of hard work, Jeanne Paula finally completes the program. When, tested, the marketing program is approved and is considered a big success.

- Ends that are described as final those pursued for their own sake but conditionally final. This means., there are same circumstances when they become subservient to other ends. This happens when a "more comprehensive end" has to be taken into account

- Aristotle claimed that it is the reason why some final ends are embraced or abandoned. Furthermore, it the supreme end that is unconditionally final end that gives "purpose" and '"direction" to our lives.

- Aristotle's account of happiness is quite different from ihe usual conception of happiness. While some people would identify bodily pleasures like food, drink and
sex, among others, as the defining factor of happiness, he insisted that it should instead be understood in terms of man's distinctive function. Since man is the only being endowed with rationality, then if follows that reason is what separates him from other beings.

- Since computing is a human action, it follows that the norms or standards of morality apply to it. Moral ideals such as righteousness, fairness, goodness, and justice apply in the evaluation of computing as a human action. Actions that do not infringe the intellectual creations of others, decency, honesty and integrity in the use of computer and its applications, among others, are the computer users' means towards attaining the "good life,"

- According to Virtue Ethics, there are types of virtues: moral virtue and intellectual virtue both are identified as the activities not of the body but the soul

- Moral virtue is also known as the virtue of character include generosity and temperance
- Intellectual virtue or virtue of thought include wisdom, comprehension, and intelligence

- The soul as mentioned comprised of rational and irrational parts. The rational component directs us to what is right; the irrational element is that which is natural opposed reason.

-The irrational Part is further subdivided into two: the nutritive and appetitive component.Nutrition and growth are not in reason's nature to control. The appetitive component includes the desiring elements which in a sense share in a rational principle. This only means that this component has the tendency to obey and listen to reason. It is reason that directs the desires and appetites to what is best. That is the mean between two extremes.

- the "mean" according Aristotle, is highly relative to the variables surrounding a particular moral situation the require careful discernment and sensitivity to what reason will dictate

- Aristotle added that moral virtues can be developed through the repeated exercise of the acts that strike the "mean". This emphasize that it is not enough that the moral agent can discern what is right. This will not make any sense if not acted out.

- More precisely; it is in the repeated performance of rational activities over time that make virtuous character.

- Virtue of character then is

• (a) a state that decides;
  
• (b) consisting in a mean;
  
• (c) the mean relative to us;
  
• (d) which is defined by reference to reason;
  

- Aristotle also enumerated some requisite characteristics that must describe a morally virtuous agent:

• (1) the agent must act in full consciousness of what he is doing;
  
• (2) he must will his action and pursue it for its own sake;
  
• (3) the act must proceed from a fixed and unchangeable disposition. (Irwin)

- It is through virtues of thought that the human being is able to grasp, deliberate, and discern the first principles and the truths concerning the particulars and the universals. As a result every excellent decision presupposes an excellent reason. Decision is to the character while deliberation and thought are to the intellect. (White)

Ethics and Law

Laws in general govern the acts of humans. In school our actions are controlled by rules enforced by school administrators

Laws can be:

Written or unwritten
Formal or informal
Rigid or flexible

e.g the New Constitution of the Philippines is an example of a Written, formal and rigid type of law
Law, in its widest and most comprehensive sense, refers to an ordering principle of rule of action that people must obey or conform to.


Laws are rule of consecution, or an order of sequence, that people cannot counter without detrimental consequences. Any deviation or departure from law is subject to punishment or condemnation.

As a rule of action, the law pertains to any regulation, precept, and measure or precedent that governs any human concern act or conduct, contract or transaction and proceedings, inclusive of their effects

Applying the above to computing, the following would be examples of rules of action:

Law on IP
Law governing freedom of expression
Statutes and laws promulgated by Congress
Pres. Decrees and Republic Acts
Code of conduct or Ethics governing professionals within a particular field or profession

Rule of Action does not lose its validity by mere violation or even by repetitive transgression.

Laxity in enforcement of non-implementation of law will not affect its efficacy and validity.

As an order of sequence, law pertains to systematic arrangement or sequencing of consecutive progression indicating uniformity of a given set of occurrences

Example of order of sequence
Computer Programming procedures
Computer Applications

There are different kinds of laws. Two general categories are jural and non-jural laws

4 Kinds of Non-jural Laws

Divine Law

Pertains to the entire system of faultlessness and perfection that God has initiated to govern the whole of creation, both living and non-living.

All other laws would fall under the divine law as it encompasses and governs not only human action but the whole universe as well

It encompasses the dogmas of religious faith that give empphasis on the reparation of sins and salvation of life.
As a rule of action, Divine law is absolute

Natural Law

Unwritten law permeating and governing nature as a rational harmony and orderly pattern of different things and events without which the latter would be reduces to chaos and disarray.

It is not merely legal law because what is legal may not be naturally just. It is likewise absolute (Plato)

The precepts of natural law are righteousness, justice, equity and fairness. From these precepts the laws that govern in computing is derived. E.g. piracy, pornography

Moral Law

The precepts of this law include goodness, and virtuous conducts

Consists of moral norms that ascertain and dictate what sort of behavior or conduct may or may not be expressed. What sort of acts may or may be performed within a particular community.

Generally recognized as the desirable ethical norms and principles based on good and virtuous conduct that governs human actions

Example of human actions in computing that are compliant to the moral law

Respect for others privacy and Intellectual rights
Fidelity in the using information
Honestly in the sharing of information
Integrity in creating computer programs
Condemnation of computer crimes and abuses

Physical Law

Known as “Law of Nature” but sometimes confused with natural law because on their correlation with ordering sequences and uniformities of distinct things and occurences that are relied upon as being constant and regular

Characterized by regularity and imperativeness. Regular because once it become operative, its efficacy remains constant and unbreakable. Imperative because it is permanent and unchangeable

Without constancy, regularity, uniformity and imperativeness, an occurrence or corporeal phenomena cannot be regarded as physical law of a law of nature

Definition of Ethics

Derived from the Greek term “ethos” which means character or custom. Its equivalent term in Roman is the word “mores”, from which words like morality, morals and moral are derived

It is intertwined with customs and traditions believed in adopted by particular community. What is “ethical” is therefore relative to the customs applicable to a community

e.g software piracy might be ethical in in Asia but unethical in US.

The study of the morality of human action

Human actions are judged as ethical or unethical depending on the circumstances surrounding the same and based on certain standards generally accepted by a particular community of group of people.

e.g.hacking, plagiarism, infringing IP rights

Ethics focuses on the care for the soul

This focus of this definition is religious or spiritual. Unethical or immoral acts are those that bring sins that contaminate the human soul

An area of Philosophy that deals with man's pursuit of the “good life”

The attainment of “good life” is predicated upon one's adherence to ethics. This is means that ethics is used as a means to reach a particular end which justifies the “good life”

The study and philosophy of human conduct with emphasis on the determination of right and wrong

Human conduct as manifested through human actions may either be right/ethical or wrong/unethical

Ethics deals with the basic principles of right action especially with reference to a particular person or profession.

This pertains to the norms that govern human actions specifically in the practice of a profession or craft

Ethics as a concept suggests that notion of correct or incorrect practice relative to various concerns or fields of study

This pertains to the growing need to address moral issues and unethical practices within the boundaries of various areas of study. This is also referred as applied ethics